The Epicurean Position on Happiness (based on Cicero On Ends)
Lecture Notes Corresponding to Study Questions for Annas,
Voices of Ancient Philosophy, Section V)November 26, 2002 1. The final and ultimate good is the quality of pleasure, the highest evil is pain. (On Ends 1.29)
2. This is obvious (1.30) because every animal, as soon as it is born, seeks pleasure and enjoys it, while avoiding pain as the greatest evil. The point is that habituation has not distorted our natural tendency; this shows hedonism is truly in accord with nature.
3. Some people mistakenly ... avoid pleasure mistakenly generalize from the experience of people who seek pleasure in an irrational way and cause themselves great pains. It is not hedonism but irrational hedonism that is at fault.
Some people (seem to) seek pain (1.32) b/c they engage in a painful activity for the sake of some later and greater pleasure.
4. Those who are seduced by immediate pleasure fail to anticipate the pain that is to come.
Those who abandon their duties through mental weakness (1.33) are trying to avoid effort, i.e., immediate pain, failing to see that it is reasonable to endure immediate pain to avoid greater pains in the long run.
5. The wise person will (1.33) use the method that pleasures should be rejected when doing so results in other greater pleasures; pains should be selected when this avoids worse pains
6. Already already in the first century B.C. the opponents of Epicureanism falsely portrayed it as advocating a life that is sensual (physically self-indulgent?), spoilt (morally corrupt?), and soft (unable to endure hardships).
7. The Epicurean speaker define pleasure in a general way: Everything in which one takes delight. Pain? Everything which distresses one. (1.37)
8. The highest pleasure is the absence of all pain. Beyond this point (1.38) pleasure can be varied but not increased or expanded.
9. We can prepare our minds to fear neither death nor pain (1.40) by understanding that "in death there is no sensation, and hence no pain" (so it is nothing to be feared), and in life pain is generally either long-lasting but slight or serious but brief (hence endurable).
Memory helps: we can enhance the present by recollecting past pleasures.
The proper view about the gods is important. The gods are not concerned with us. We need not fear myths about divine retribution in the afterlife. Epicurus thought that such fear made people fearful and their lives miserable.
Epicurus argues for his hedonistic thesis by comparing the life without mental pain to situation of a person who is worn down by physical and mental pain, with no hope that the burden shall be lifted, with neither present nor anticipated pleasure. (He expects us just to "see" that the one is good, and the other evil.)
10. A thing (action, disposition, institution, etc.) is right and praiseworthy insofar as it con-tributes to a life of pleasure. The highest or greatest good is defined at 1.42 "formally," as what is conducive to no other end (cf. Aristotle's "most final end"); "materially," as living pleasantly.)
11. What has wisdom, the art of living, mastered? (1.42-43) the art of locating and obtaining pleasure. It is not desirable for itself but for its consequences.
The root of life's troubles is (1.43) ignorance of what is good and bad.
12. (1.43-44) Wisdom alone...stops us trembling with fear. Under her tutelage one can live in peace, the flame of all our desires extinguished
13. Natural desires are satisfied without much effort or cost. They are satisfied with finite objects. The other desires are endless and insatiable. (1.45)
Type of desire: natural and necessary14. Temperance, courage, and justice, are not desirable for their own sake but for the peace or tranquillity brings our minds. (1.47-53)
Object of desire: food, drink, physical activity; friends (L. to Menoecus 127)
Characteristics: finite, easily satisfiedType of desire: natural and unnecessary
Object of desire: sexual pleasure
Characteristics: finite, easily satisfiedType of Desire: not natural
Object of Desire: latest fashion in clothing or exotic foods
Characteristics: rest on empty opinion (Principal Doctrines 30); limitless, never really satisfied15. Mental pleasure and pain is regarded as far more significant than physical. (1.55)
16. Living pleasantly and living honestly, honorably, and justly coincide in practice. (1.57)
17. What is worse, sickness of body or sickness of mind? The latter. How does the speaker understand sickness of mind? (1.59) The excessive and hollow desire for wealth, glory, power, and even sensual pleasure.
18. Epicureans value friendship very highly. The connection between friendship and pleasure is so close that it is impossible to maintain a manipulative attitude toward friend. We cannot "maintain friendship itself unless we love our friends no less than we do ourselves." (1.67)