INTRODUCTION

early Bronze Age Aegean and Mediterranean civilizations (pre-Greeks and pre-Romans) were poorly known archaeologically until relatively recently

possible explanations for origins of complex society include these factors:

trade

control of agricultural surplus

control of raw materials

religious power and sanctions

systems approach (combination of factors)

INTRODUCTION

studied extensively by Arthur Evans between 1900-1935; he spent over one million dollars on excavation and restoration of Knossos site itself

named by Evans for mythical King Minos of Crete

LOCATION

mountainous island of Crete southeast of Greek mainland

ORIGINS

probably came from Asia Minor beginning 7000 BC but were several waves

spoke IndoEuropean language

used to think they were Egyptians, lost tribes, ancestors of Phoenicians or ancestors of Greeks

reason for increased complexity:  systems theory involving grape, olive and metals
 

SUBSISTENCE

farmers and herders, domesticated olive very important

also used marine resources
 

SETTLEMENT / ARCHITECTURE

seven major power centers on Crete (palace complexes), all located in the eastern part of the island: Knossos (largest), Mallia, Gournia, Kato Zakro, Myrtos, Hagia Triadha, Phaistos (see map above)

palaces unfortified

stone construction common

numerous towns and estates

country mansions are new site type in Second Palace period

round columns with wide top and tapered base common; pillars may have been worshipped

U-shaped horns were common motif in architecture

Horn motif at Knossos, Crete.

UNIQUE TRAITS

many methods of water control, especially at palaces

angled drainage system of stone gutters to channel and torrential rain runoff to cisterns

system of ducts, terra cotta gutters and catch basins fed into huge underground channels of stone and cement to remove waste materials, accessed by manhole

toilets (seats over drains flushed by pouring water in)

bathrooms with terra cotta tubs not linked to sewer system

Sewer system and queen's bathroom at Knossos, Crete.

example of institutionalized state symbol

common in decorations at palaces

example of panther in double axe form in text

used as weapons and tools, but smaller stylized ones (often of gold) probably used in ritual context to kill sacrificial animals and used in cult activities or Minoan religion in general

carved all over the palace walls

Minoan word for it was "labrys" and word "labyrinth" means house of the double axe

Shrine of Double Axes at Knossos is good example

SITES

Knossos

largest palace complex

over 6 acres and 40,000 to 80,000 people at palace and surrounding town in heyday about 1700 BC

built on mound and located on northern coast of island

destroyed twice (1700 BC by earthquake and 1450 BC for unknown reason)

Aerial view of Knossos, Crete.

Phaistos   second largest, southern coast, destroyed twice by earthquakes

Kato Zakro    east coast, important naval base

Hagia Triadha    near Phaistos, L-shaped site, may've been summer residence of ruler at Phaistos

Gournia   on northeastern coast

Myrtos   on southeastern coast
 

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

highly stratified but may not have been clear middle class

many levels within upper and lower classes

females appear to have had considerable freedom and prominent position in religion
 

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

little is known

ruler may've been king, queen, priest-king, priestess-queen, god-king, priest

highly institutionalized bureaucracy but composition unknown

naval power in Aegean
 

RELIGION

preoccupied with religion, polytheistic

many representations of religious activities in seals, murals, rings and statues

no public temples or large centers of worship, but find shrines (small rooms with altars) at palaces and villas and small niches or alcoves in homes of commoners

some ceremonies like dancing and tree shaking took place outside on mountain tops at stone sanctuaries or in caves

chief deities were goddesses associated with natural world, main is Mistress of Animals

other deities Snake Goddess, Eileithyia Goddess of Childbirth, Dove Goddess, Poseidon, Hermes

Snake goddess recovered from Knossos.

sacred animals were snake (guardian of house), dove and bull

goddesses associated with snakes and doves but significance unknown

goddess depictions mostly found in palace shrines

major religious symbols are double headed axe and horns of consecration
 

ECONOMICS / TRADE

primary exports were pottery, olive, wine

merchant class important

sea trade widespread
 

DECLINE

occurred in Second Palace period

gradual decline after second palace collapse in 1450 BC

reason may've been natural catastrophe (eruption of Thera to north), foreign invasion, domestic upheaval

lots of evidence of massive fires but not all palaces destroyed at once

palaces never rebuilt

MYCENAEANS 
1600 - 1100 BC
 

information comes primarily from archaeology, early historians, and folklore

represents last phase of Helladic culture on the Greek peninsula
 

LOCATION

Greek peninsula, Peloponnesus area

ORIGINS

wealth related to wine, olive and metals

rise related to military force and external contacts of wealthy lords or barons who entered the peninsula

two interpretations of origins:

indigenous, based on widespread farming and herding cultures already established there

 
SUBSISTENCE

farmers and herders, probably imported a lot of food

also used marine resources
 

SETTLEMENT

palace complexes surrounded by town and village satellites

some palaces fortified with wall and towers, some not

little evidence of early settlements

palaces and stone tombs are conspicuous sites

most settlements unwalled, various plans but often follow terrain, multiroom houses
 

UNIQUE TRAITS

megaron

large columnated central hall of the royal palaces of Mycenaen kings 

throne on one side reached through antechamber and porch

central hall of palace where state business was conducted

walls covered with frescos

elaborately decorated furniture

floor decorated with bright effigy and geometric designs

circular hearth 10-15' in diameter at center of room

one entrance flanked by vestibules

Megaron at Pylos, Greece.

massive walls and steps constructed of immense irregular roughly cut blocks of stone

erected after 1250 BC

mostly defensive purposes

Cyclopean fortification (with Lion Gate) at Mycenae, Greece.

SITES

Mycenae

destroyed and reoccupied several times

center of ivory working, pottery manufacture and bronze weapon production

most important city by 1300 BC

overlooked fertile Agros plain

two grave circles of shaft graves (6 and 14 shafts) for two royal dynasties maybe

Treasury of Atreus here

citadel palace with fortification wall, in some places 50' thick

King Agamemnon

Aerial view of Mycenae, Greece.

destroyed and burned 1200 BC (pirate raid?) and not reoccupied

King Nestor

megaron with giant octopus

palace virtually unfortified

surrounded by network of smaller towns and villages who helped support palace inhabitants

specialized in pottery

many specialists worked at palace

careful records of taxes, payroll, craft production, etc on tablets

Ithaca (famed home of Odysseus)

Sparta

Tiryns (in Peloponnesus and sacked after 1200 BC)

Thebes

Gla (north of Thebes, sacked by ?)

Iolkos (in Thessaly, sacked 1200-1150 BC)

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

major classes were nobles, military, merchants, peasants

power and wealth of nobility gained through force, use of metal weapons, methods of fighting, trade contacts and foreign contacts

nobles may've been related

not much known about commoners
 

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

began as collection of small independent kingdoms ruled by king or prince

later smaller kingdoms were absorbed by major ones of Mycenae, Tiryns, Thebes and Pylos

big ones called "palace-states"

palace was center of administrative-military-industrial system

gained control of Aegean from Minoans about 1500 BC, occupying Knossos but not the other palaces on Crete

established trading colonies and contacts throughout Mediterranean Sea including Levant

expanding wealth and power from 1600-1250 BC

developed a navy

warriors used unique figure-8 shaped shields that hung to feet (see picture in text)

spear, and boars'-tusk helmet, some use of armor (see pictures in text)

chariots were used in warfare
 

RELIGION

polytheistic, preGreek gods and goddesses

Zeus, Hera, Athena, Poseidon, etc.

cult activities based in multiroom shrines

snake important as in Crete; seen as benevolent protector of the home
 

TRADE / ECONOMICS

established trading colonies and contacts throughout Mediterranean Sea including Levant

merchant class

sea trade widespread

importance of wine, olives, metals
 

DECLINE

palace destruction begins about 1200 BC

not sacked by invading Dorians  as previously thought; maybe the Sea Peoples

decline related to inability to produce enough food on mainland (had to import a lot of grain), interference of trade due to piracy, civil unrest or stasis ("internal interstate wars"), destruction of palace complexes by unknown people

collapse was fairly rapid as culture disappeared by about 1100 BC

replaced by feudal system, the "dark ages" of Greece

called themselves "Rasenna" "Rasna" or "Etruria"

"Italy's first great civilization"

most of our info about them comes from Etruscan grave goods and frescos plus written records of other cultures
 

LOCATION

north-central Italy

most sites in an area bounded by Arno River to north, Tiber River to south and east, and Tyrrhenian Sea to west (15,000 sq mi)

some settlements to Po River in north, and Apennine Mtns to east

southernmost extent was to location of Greek trading colonies

ORIGINS

two interpretations

migration of people from Lydia, Turkey about 1300 BC

SUBSISTENCE

farming and herding

specialized in pigs but also raised cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, geese, chickens

raised cereals (barley, wheat, millet), fruit trees, vegetables, grape, but no olives

imported olive oil

cheese and wine
 

SETTLEMENT

some large cities (most now buried or destroyed)

upper class homes of wood and/or mud-brick and styles mimicked by burial tombs
 

UNIQUE TRAITS

bucchero

distinctive black pottery with metallic sheen

common forms are bowls, vases and plates

color derived from use of locally available, iron-rich clay fired in oxygen atmosphere

decorative motifs include writing, animals (dog, horse), Eastern designs

important manufacturing center at Caere

standardized artwork of state

bundle of rods bound around a central, double-bladed axe

symbolized kings sovereignty and rulers power to order punishments

carried by kings' attendants on ceremonial occasions

often made of iron

first city to use it as a power symbol was Vetulonia

first fasces found at Vetulonia in 1890s

used by Romans (single-bladed) and Mussolini

water control devices used to control flooding and erosion on fields and roads

cut underground passages (cuniculi) to channel surface water away from fields and roads

cuniculi 5-6' high, 1.5' wide with shafts to surface every 100'

over 28 miles of cuniculi have been found

terra cotta pipes used to carry water to homes from cisterns and stone-lined drains used to remove excess water

sewage systems in some towns

Subterranean cuniculi.

foretelling the future, determining the wishes of the gods, and discovering the meanings behind events

powerful priestly class of soothsayers drawn from the aristocracy

read omens based on patterns in lightning and thunder and based on bumps on the internal organs of animals

used animal liver extensively and believed it reflected the organization of the universe (16 parts with related gods)

Sheep liver regions used in divination.

direction of origin of lightning was used to read omens

identified 11 directions, each associated with a god

brontoscopic calendar for relating lightning and thunder with dates for future events, ex:  bolt on July 14 means power will change hands

SITES

Caere

bucchero manufacturing site

Banditaccia necropolis

craft and trade center

economic leader in north-central Italy

mines brought prosperity after 650 BC

after 650 BC primary Etruscan city

Dromos at Caere, Italy.

founded 753 BC

first Etruscan ruler Lucius Tarquinius, became king in 616 BC and established Tarquin Dynasty

control passed to Latins and Greeks in 506 BC

center of iron industry, coin minting

by 400 BC was similar to present-day Pittsburgh

produced 10-12,000 tons of ore per year for 400 years based on slag heaps

two zones in city (industrial sector near sea with port and navy and upper city with residences)

north of Rome

bronze exports

650-700 BC richest and most influential city

Vulci     major art center in late 500s, bronze and stone sculpture

Elba     island with vast iron deposits and many mines
 

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

occupational specialization (sailors, cobblers, merchants,  warriors, miners, servants, slaves, aristocrats)

very lavish lifestyle of  aristocracy but little is known about commoners, big gap between the two

may  have been a special class "etera" of special servants to lords with some privileges like managing farms

no "middle" class

slaves and servants treated well

women had lots of freedoms to participate in various activities, to own property, to retain own names compared to Greeks and Romans
 

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

no centralized power

many city-states

powerful navy

height of power about 600 BC

adopted military techniques from Greeks (ie. infantry, phalanx)

use of sturdy leather boots in battle was unique
 

RELIGION

strongly influenced by Greek pantheon

chief deity was Tinia (=Zeus), also borrowed Apollo and Artemis but changed names, Greek Hera = Etruscan Uni and Greek Minerva = Etruscan Menrva

local gods and supernaturals also

called the most god-fearing culture of the time

intensive belief that humans are powerless and here to obey gods' wishes

all events preordained (hence divination was important)

priestly class of soothsayers (haruspices read entrials and fulguriatures read lightning and thunder)

universe divided into 16 parts each with chief deity

death and underworld had 5 gods + Tinia, celestial realm had 4 gods + Tinia, and nature and earth had 6 gods (15 total for 16 sectors)

foci of worship was temples of wood, mud-brick and terra cotta on stone foundations facing south

Linen Book is only sacred text surviving (on mummy wrappings)
 

TRADE / ECONOMICS

imported olive oil, gold, ivory, amber, Greek vases;

exported metal ores of copper, lead and iron, finished metalworks, produce

traded with Greece and its colonies, Mediterranean islands, Phoenicians, Carthage
 

DECLINE

gradual takeover by Romans beginning 4th century BC coupled with drop in trade, class conflicts, and invasions from north

absorbed by Roman empire

REFERENCES

Price and Feinman (2001), Feder (2000), Fagan (2002), Warren (1989), Hamblin (1974), Edey (1974)