General Overview of Neolithic Village Life               Village Farming Adaptation          Regulatory Mechanisms

Levant Area             Anatolia Area             Zagros/Mesopotamia Area

Neolithic is period of development of substantial villages or sedentism

general trend was early villages  --> domestication  -->  advanced sedentism  -->  food production

distribution of sedentary villages is not necessarily equal to or coeval with early agriculture

there wasn't necessarily an agricultural base when sedentism developed, but groups were making the transition

developments in sedentism and substantial architecture occurred sooner and to higher degree in Levant compared to Zagros area, where emphasis was on developments in food production; Levant was pivotal area compared to Zagros or Anatolia

village sites are in both nuclear and marginal zones (zones defined by presence or absence of domesticate progenitors)

factors in site location:  many villages located close to differences in elevation that allowed access to maximum number of habitats with diverse resources and water; defense and proximity to trade routes apparently not as important

probably egalitarian or ranked tribal level of development

general characteristics of early villages:

    1. rectilinear and multiroom structures, which reflect changes in household organization and activities

    2. second-story structures with multichambered foundations or "cell-plan levels"

        -foundation rooms were crawl ways or workrooms
        -second story was living space
        -because there is no differential distribution in these structures within a village,
           there is no evidence of interfamily job specialization and therefore there was
           intrafamily job specialization

    3. primary organizational unit is single family

    4. specialization and flexibility in technology

        -manifestations of specialization are in tools and architecture
        -manifestations of flexibility are in tools, building technology, and subsistence
        -examples are increase in nonutilitarian artifacts, increased diversity in raw
           material use, increased ornamentation and decoration, and more containers

  examples of sedentary village sites:  Jericho, Jarmo, Catal Huyuk, Mureybit, Beidha, Cayönü, Ganj Dareh, Ali Kosh, Kermanshah

Aerial view of the tel at Jericho, surrounded by modern city.

View of tel at Jericho, Israel.

Wall and tower at Jericho.

Example of plaster-covered skull from Jericho.

Aerial view of Jarmo, Iraq.

Excavated house features at Jarmo.

VILLAGE FARMING ADAPTATION

advanced farming villages were "end product" of agricultural revolution in Near East

development of advanced farming villages occurred about 4000 to 5000 BC

ranked tribal or chiefdom level of development

this adaptation is seen as an economic strategy that lasted for several thousand years, until development of complex societies

adaptation was successful because of three factors in a positive feedback relationship:

1. domesticates were more reliable and abundant food sources

2. technological developments related to food production discouraged return to hunting-gathering

3. reorganization of communities facilitated and perpetuated food production

most significant cultural changes related to community organization, some of which led to new "regulatory institutions"

new artifact type is ceramics, which form basis of most archaeological interpretations

some advanced farming villages developed into towns

POSSIBLE REGULATORY MECHANISMS OF ADVANCED FARMING COMMUNITIES:
How were the actions of community members regulated?

1. warfare / armed conflict

2. concept of property ownership

3. formalized religious and ritual practices

4. social stratification

LATER FARMING SETTLEMENTS IN THE LEVANT AREA

6000 BC saw abandonment of many Levant sedentary communities, probably due to widespread drying of climate that made dry farming difficult

populations moved to the north and to narrow coastal areas

reoccupation of some areas about 5000 BC

few changes from earlier villages except for introduction of pottery; for example, Yarmukian assemblage is new cultural inventory characterized by pottery with decorated, red slipped jars and clay figures

example is Byblos, on the coast of Lebanon

two-room structures with stone foundations and plaster floors

well-made pottery was abundant

agriculture supplemented by aquatic resources

later became an important center of cedar lumber production by the Phoenicians

View of ancient runis at Byblos, Lebanon.

other sites include Munhata, Jericho, and Ramad

LATER FARMING SETTLEMENTS IN ANATOLIA

advanced farming villages developed from earlier farming villages

sites include Can Hasan, Erbaba, Hacilar

best known site is Catal Hüyük in Turkey

largest Near Eastern settlement of the 7th millennium at 13 ha with 14 levels

population could have several thousand people; a city??

agricultural economy (cattle important) with irrigation plus lively trade and craft production

sophisticated construction techniques distinguish it from contemporaneous sites

single story mud brick and wood structures in standard rectilinear plan

no space between houses but were arranged around courtyards

almost 140 structures, 40 of which were shrines

trade for raw materials, some of which came from 1000 m away: obsidian, flints, shells, copper, turquoise, timber

household craft industry and specialization likely

unique artifact is wall paintings on plaster; oldest in world, usually geometric designs

Excavated house structures at Catal Huyuk.

Artist reconstruction of Catal Huyuk settlement.

LATER FARMING SETTLEMENTS IN THE ZAGROS MTNS /  MESOPOTAMIA AREA

changes include increased population, although community size still 100-200 each, ceramic technology common by 6000-6500 BC, more substantial architecture, more complex Artifact inventories

settlements spread from Zagros foothills into border zones of Mesopotamia

evidence of early concept of ownership includes rebuilding on old foundations, stamping seals, potters' marks

evidence of social stratification includes differential burial goods, elaborate infant burial goods like alabaster vessels (probably indicates ascribed status)

cultural groups defined by pottery styles, for example:  Hassunan, Samarran, Halafian

Hassunan communities toward the north; type site is Hassuna of about 5500 BC

Hassuna in piedmont area of northern Mesopotamia, including area of Assyria

occupation levels include campsites, rectangular housing around courtyards, and advanced agricultural community layout at Hassuna

pottery of all three styles, pottery in all occupation levels

dry farming economy possible

sites include Hassuna, Umm Dabaghiyah

Artist reconstruction of domestic space at Hassuna, Iraq.

Samarran villages generally south of Hassunan sites (but pottery at some Hassunan sites)

sites include Samarra, Tel es-Sawwan, Choga Mami

architecture is well-made mud brick, some early buttressing

highly decorated pottery is hallmark artifact

cereal grain economy based on irrigation in some places or use of drought-resistant crops; early canal system at Choga Mami; all animal domesticates used

defensive features at some sites include wall and ditch, tower

Halafian villages in north where Hassunan villages were, plus north and west

dated between 5500-4800 BC

characterized by new pottery style, circular structures of mud brick and tauf with stone foundations and rectangular antechambers, beads and amulets

may be first chiefdom level of organization

sites include Tel Halaf, Arpachiyah, Girikihaciyan, Banahilk

REFERENCE

Redman, Charles L.
1978  The Rise of Civilization. W.H. Freeman, San Fransisco.

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